Lloyd, Robert Earl2023-12-052023-12-052005Lloyd, R.E. (2005). The interaction of biological and environmental effects on spatial abilities: A review. Research in Geographic Education, 5, pp. 48-84.1529-0085https://hdl.handle.net/10877/17403The purpose of this paper is to review cognitive science and neuroscience literature related to spatial abilities and individual differences, and to identify connections with geographic education. The hunter-gatherer theory offers an evolutionary explanation of sex differences based on natural and sexual selection. The right shift theory is a genetic theory that considers how brain lateralization for speech and spatial abilities are related. The bent twig theory explains how biology and the environment might interact to influence how individuals develop their spatial abilities. Conclusions argue that models of cognitive performance based on the interaction of biology and the environment are the most complete and promising.Text37 pages1 file (.pdf)engeographysex differencesspatial abilitylearning theorygeographic educationneural efficiencyArticle